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Infernogallus

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Paratype mandibles of Infernogallus jamesi. Photographs (a, c, e, g, i, k) and illustrations (b, d, f, h, j, l) of ROM VP 64193, fused left and right dentaries (a–f) and associated left articular-surangular-coronoid complex (ROM VP 64194; g–l), in dorsal (a, b, g, h), ventral (c, d, i, j), and left lateral (e, f, k, l) views. Abbreviations: ang, angular; :ang, contact for articular; aor, anterior occlusal ridge; art, articular; core, coronoid eminence; cor:sur suture between coronoid and surangular; :dent, contact for dentary; dep, depression; emf, external mandibular fenestra; for, foramen; gen, geniogloussus attachment; lg, lingual groove; lor, lateral occlusal ridge; lr, lingual ridge; lt, lingual tubercle; mg, Meckelian groove; :pre, contact for prearticular; sulc, midline sulcus; sur, surangular; sur:art, suture between surangular and articular; tub*, autapomorphic tubercle on the posteroventral process of the dentary.

Paratype mandibles of Infernogallus jamesi. Photographs (a, c, e, g, i, k) and illustrations (b, d, f, h, j, l) of ROM VP 64193, fused left and right dentaries (a–f) and associated left articular-surangular-coronoid complex (ROM VP 64194; g–l), in dorsal (a, b, g, h), ventral (c, d, i, j), and left lateral (e, f, k, l) views. Abbreviations: ang, angular; :ang, contact for articular; aor, anterior occlusal ridge; art, articular; core, coronoid eminence; cor:sur suture between coronoid and surangular; :dent, contact for dentary; dep, depression; emf, external mandibular fenestra; for, foramen; gen, geniogloussus attachment; lg, lingual groove; lor, lateral occlusal ridge; lr, lingual ridge; lt, lingual tubercle; mg, Meckelian groove; :pre, contact for prearticular; sulc, midline sulcus; sur, surangular; sur:art, suture between surangular and articular; tub*, autapomorphic tubercle on the posteroventral process of the dentary.

tooth Infernogallus
Paratype dentaries of Infernogallus jamesi. Three-dimensional model of NDGS 4351 in left lateral (A), right lateral (B), bisected medial (C), posterior (D), dorsal (E), and ventral (F) views. Abbreviations: dblvg, dorsal branch of the longitudinal vascular groove; emf, external mandibular fenestra; f, foramen; loag, labial anterior occlusal groove; laor, labial anterior occlusal ridge; lap, lateral pneumatopore; lblvg, lateral branch of the longitudinal vascular groove; lip, lingual pneumatopore; lg, lingual groove; lor, lateral occlusal ridge; lr, lingual ridge; lrt, lingual ridge tubercle; lvg, longitudinal vascular groove; maog, midline anterior occlusal groove; maor, medial anterior occlusal ridge; mblvg, medial branch of the longitudinal vascular groove; mf, mandibular fossa; mg, Meckelian groove; mm, depression for the M. genioglossus; pa?, possible articulation facet for the prearticular; pdp, posterodorsal process; pvp, posteroventral process; pvpr, posteroventral process ridge; sa, articulation surface for the ASC complex; ss, symphyseal shelf. Scale bar is 1 cm.

Paratype dentaries of Infernogallus jamesi. Three-dimensional model of NDGS 4351 in left lateral (A), right lateral (B), bisected medial (C), posterior (D), dorsal (E), and ventral (F) views. Abbreviations: dblvg, dorsal branch of the longitudinal vascular groove; emf, external mandibular fenestra; f, foramen; loag, labial anterior occlusal groove; laor, labial anterior occlusal ridge; lap, lateral pneumatopore; lblvg, lateral branch of the longitudinal vascular groove; lip, lingual pneumatopore; lg, lingual groove; lor, lateral occlusal ridge; lr, lingual ridge; lrt, lingual ridge tubercle; lvg, longitudinal vascular groove; maog, midline anterior occlusal groove; maor, medial anterior occlusal ridge; mblvg, medial branch of the longitudinal vascular groove; mf, mandibular fossa; mg, Meckelian groove; mm, depression for the M. genioglossus; pa?, possible articulation facet for the prearticular; pdp, posterodorsal process; pvp, posteroventral process; pvpr, posteroventral process ridge; sa, articulation surface for the ASC complex; ss, symphyseal shelf. Scale bar is 1 cm.

scale Infernogallus
Reconstruction of anteroposterior movement of the mandible during the chewing stroke in Infernogallus jamesi. Three-dimensional models of the skull and mandible showing potential mandible positions based on contact of the articular and quadrate, and resulting adductor musculature orientations. From rest (a), contraction of the m. depressor mandibulae would open the mouth (b). Contraction of the the mm. pterygoideus in this position would move the mandible forwards (c). This anterior movement would increase the anteroposterior orientations of the temporal adductor musculature (see also Supplementary Fig. 7a–c). Contraction of the temporal adductor muscles in this position would bring the mandible upwards and backwards (c). This movement would enable manipulation and compression of foods between the triturating features of the dentary and the maxillovomeral process of the palate (d). Blue arrows and text indicate inferred motions, black text indicates muscle groups contracting. M depressor mandibulae could not be reconstructed based on the areas exposed in ROM VP 65050, but it has deeply conserved attachments on the posterior process of the squamosal and retroarticular process of the mandible in archosaurs 5 . In positions (c, d), the m depressor mandibulae would rest medial to the quadratojugal.

Reconstruction of anteroposterior movement of the mandible during the chewing stroke in Infernogallus jamesi. Three-dimensional models of the skull and mandible showing potential mandible positions based on contact of the articular and quadrate, and resulting adductor musculature orientations. From rest (a), contraction of the m. depressor mandibulae would open the mouth (b). Contraction of the the mm. pterygoideus in this position would move the mandible forwards (c). This anterior movement would increase the anteroposterior orientations of the temporal adductor musculature (see also Supplementary Fig. 7a–c). Contraction of the temporal adductor muscles in this position would bring the mandible upwards and backwards (c). This movement would enable manipulation and compression of foods between the triturating features of the dentary and the maxillovomeral process of the palate (d). Blue arrows and text indicate inferred motions, black text indicates muscle groups contracting. M depressor mandibulae could not be reconstructed based on the areas exposed in ROM VP 65050, but it has deeply conserved attachments on the posterior process of the squamosal and retroarticular process of the mandible in archosaurs 5 . In positions (c, d), the m depressor mandibulae would rest medial to the quadratojugal.

Infernogallus skull
Infernogallus jamesi (ROM VP 65050). Photograph (a) and line drawing (b) of ROM VP 65050. c Skeletal reconstruction of Infernogallus jamesi based on ROM VP 65050 and other eucaenagnathines (shaded areas are preserved in ROM 65050). (d) Palaeohistological thin section of the femur of ROM VP 65050, showing lines of arrested growth (arrows) and an external fundamental system indicative of advanced age and skeletal maturity. cv cervical vertebrae, dv dorsal vertebrae, efs external fundamental system, fe femur, ga gastralia, hu humerus, il ilium, ma manus, pb pubis, pp plane-polarised light, sc scapulacoracoid, sk skull, tb tibia, xp cross-polarised light. Scale bars as indicated.

Infernogallus jamesi (ROM VP 65050). Photograph (a) and line drawing (b) of ROM VP 65050. c Skeletal reconstruction of Infernogallus jamesi based on ROM VP 65050 and other eucaenagnathines (shaded areas are preserved in ROM 65050). (d) Palaeohistological thin section of the femur of ROM VP 65050, showing lines of arrested growth (arrows) and an external fundamental system indicative of advanced age and skeletal maturity. cv cervical vertebrae, dv dorsal vertebrae, efs external fundamental system, fe femur, ga gastralia, hu humerus, il ilium, ma manus, pb pubis, pp plane-polarised light, sc scapulacoracoid, sk skull, tb tibia, xp cross-polarised light. Scale bars as indicated.

humerus scale growth drawing +2
Cranial anatomy of Infernogallus jamesi. Photograph (a) and line drawing (b) of the skull of ROM VP 65050 in left lateral view. (c) µCT reconstruction of the skull and mandible, with each bone segmented separately (colours) and retrodeformed (see “Methods”). (d) µCT reconstruction with the mandible removed to show the palatal bones, which protrude ventrally below the cheek margin and the mandibular articulation point of the quadrate. (e) idealised reconstruction of the skull and mandible as they would have appeared in life, showing distinctive reduction of infratemporal fenestra (blue arrow), and rearrangement of pterygoid musculature (orange line) compared to archetypal oviraptorid Citipati osmolskae (f). Dotted blue lines in (e, f) outline internal features obscured by overlying mandibles. bo basioccipital, ect ectopterygoid, fr frontal, j jugal, lac lacrimal, lts laterosphenoid, mvp maxillovomeral process, mPTv pterygoideus ventralismuscle, mx maxilla, p parietal, pal palatine, pbs parabasiphenoid, pmx premaxilla, po postorbital, pt pterygoid, q quadrate, qj quadratojugal, sq squamosal, v vomer. Scale bar as indicated.

Cranial anatomy of Infernogallus jamesi. Photograph (a) and line drawing (b) of the skull of ROM VP 65050 in left lateral view. (c) µCT reconstruction of the skull and mandible, with each bone segmented separately (colours) and retrodeformed (see “Methods”). (d) µCT reconstruction with the mandible removed to show the palatal bones, which protrude ventrally below the cheek margin and the mandibular articulation point of the quadrate. (e) idealised reconstruction of the skull and mandible as they would have appeared in life, showing distinctive reduction of infratemporal fenestra (blue arrow), and rearrangement of pterygoid musculature (orange line) compared to archetypal oviraptorid Citipati osmolskae (f). Dotted blue lines in (e, f) outline internal features obscured by overlying mandibles. bo basioccipital, ect ectopterygoid, fr frontal, j jugal, lac lacrimal, lts laterosphenoid, mvp maxillovomeral process, mPTv pterygoideus ventralismuscle, mx maxilla, p parietal, pal palatine, pbs parabasiphenoid, pmx premaxilla, po postorbital, pt pterygoid, q quadrate, qj quadratojugal, sq squamosal, v vomer. Scale bar as indicated.

bone scale drawing Denver +5
Cranial anatomy of Infernogallus jamesi. Photograph (a) and line drawing (b) of the skull of ROM VP 65050 in left lateral view. (c) µCT reconstruction of the skull and mandible, with each bone segmented separately (colours) and retrodeformed (see “Methods”). (d) µCT reconstruction with the mandible removed to show the palatal bones, which protrude ventrally below the cheek margin and the mandibular articulation point of the quadrate. (e) idealised reconstruction of the skull and mandible as they would have appeared in life, showing distinctive reduction of infratemporal fenestra (blue arrow), and rearrangement of pterygoid musculature (orange line) compared to archetypal oviraptorid Citipati osmolskae (f). Dotted blue lines in (e, f) outline internal features obscured by overlying mandibles. bo basioccipital, ect ectopterygoid, fr frontal, j jugal, lac lacrimal, lts laterosphenoid, mvp maxillovomeral process, mPTv pterygoideus ventralismuscle, mx maxilla, p parietal, pal palatine, pbs parabasiphenoid, pmx premaxilla, po postorbital, pt pterygoid, q quadrate, qj quadratojugal, sq squamosal, v vomer. Scale bar as indicated.

Cranial anatomy of Infernogallus jamesi. Photograph (a) and line drawing (b) of the skull of ROM VP 65050 in left lateral view. (c) µCT reconstruction of the skull and mandible, with each bone segmented separately (colours) and retrodeformed (see “Methods”). (d) µCT reconstruction with the mandible removed to show the palatal bones, which protrude ventrally below the cheek margin and the mandibular articulation point of the quadrate. (e) idealised reconstruction of the skull and mandible as they would have appeared in life, showing distinctive reduction of infratemporal fenestra (blue arrow), and rearrangement of pterygoid musculature (orange line) compared to archetypal oviraptorid Citipati osmolskae (f). Dotted blue lines in (e, f) outline internal features obscured by overlying mandibles. bo basioccipital, ect ectopterygoid, fr frontal, j jugal, lac lacrimal, lts laterosphenoid, mvp maxillovomeral process, mPTv pterygoideus ventralismuscle, mx maxilla, p parietal, pal palatine, pbs parabasiphenoid, pmx premaxilla, po postorbital, pt pterygoid, q quadrate, qj quadratojugal, sq squamosal, v vomer. Scale bar as indicated.

bone scale drawing Citipati +4
Neck and body blocks of the holotype of Infernogallus jamesi. Photograph (a) and line drawing (b) of neck block of ROM VP 65050, extending from cervical vertebra 5 to the scapulacoracoid. Photograph (c) and line drawing (d) of body block, extending from dorsal vertebra 5 to the acetabulum of the pelvis. Abbreviations: cor, coracoid; c6, cervical vertebra 6; c12, cervical vertebra 12; cd1–3, cervicodorsal vertebrae 1 to 3; d9, dorsal vertebra 9; furc, furcula; gas, gastralia; hum, humerus; il, ilia; l.fem, left femur; l.pub, left pubis; l.tib, left tibia; r.fem, right femur; sr, sternal ribs; st, sternal plate; scap, scapula. Scale bar as indicated.

Neck and body blocks of the holotype of Infernogallus jamesi. Photograph (a) and line drawing (b) of neck block of ROM VP 65050, extending from cervical vertebra 5 to the scapulacoracoid. Photograph (c) and line drawing (d) of body block, extending from dorsal vertebra 5 to the acetabulum of the pelvis. Abbreviations: cor, coracoid; c6, cervical vertebra 6; c12, cervical vertebra 12; cd1–3, cervicodorsal vertebrae 1 to 3; d9, dorsal vertebra 9; furc, furcula; gas, gastralia; hum, humerus; il, ilia; l.fem, left femur; l.pub, left pubis; l.tib, left tibia; r.fem, right femur; sr, sternal ribs; st, sternal plate; scap, scapula. Scale bar as indicated.

humerus pelvis scale vertebra +3
Hand and foot of the holotype of Infernogallus jamesi. Photograph (a), line drawing (b), and reconstruction (c) of the right manus of ROM VP 65050 in lateral view (a, b) and in extensor view (c). Photograph (d) of the surface-collected pedal elements of ROM VP 65050 in extensor view. Abbreviations: I-1, phalanx I-1; II-2, phalanx II-2; III-2, phalanx III-2; III-4, phalanx III-4; IV-2, phalanx IV-2; mt I, metatarsal I; mt II, metatarsal II.

Hand and foot of the holotype of Infernogallus jamesi. Photograph (a), line drawing (b), and reconstruction (c) of the right manus of ROM VP 65050 in lateral view (a, b) and in extensor view (c). Photograph (d) of the surface-collected pedal elements of ROM VP 65050 in extensor view. Abbreviations: I-1, phalanx I-1; II-2, phalanx II-2; III-2, phalanx III-2; III-4, phalanx III-4; IV-2, phalanx IV-2; mt I, metatarsal I; mt II, metatarsal II.

drawing holotype Infernogallus
Palaeohistology of the holotype of Infernogallus jamesi. Palaeohistological thin sections of the femur (a–d), fibula (e, f) and metatarsal II (g, h) of ROM VP 65050 in plane-polarized light (a,b, e–h) and cross-polarized light (c, d). Blue boxes in (a, c, e, g) show the locations of insets (b, d, f, h). Close-ups (b, d, f, h) show the external cortical region, with lines of arrested growth (arrows) becoming closely packed towards the periosteal surface and increasing organization of bone matrix fibers, indicative of reduced annual growth rates and skeletal maturity.

Palaeohistology of the holotype of Infernogallus jamesi. Palaeohistological thin sections of the femur (a–d), fibula (e, f) and metatarsal II (g, h) of ROM VP 65050 in plane-polarized light (a,b, e–h) and cross-polarized light (c, d). Blue boxes in (a, c, e, g) show the locations of insets (b, d, f, h). Close-ups (b, d, f, h) show the external cortical region, with lines of arrested growth (arrows) becoming closely packed towards the periosteal surface and increasing organization of bone matrix fibers, indicative of reduced annual growth rates and skeletal maturity.

bone growth holotype Infernogallus
(e) idealised reconstruction of the skull and mandible as they would have appeared in life, showing distinctive reduction of infratemporal fenestra (blue arrow), and rearrangement of pterygoid musculature (orange line) compared to archetypal oviraptorid Citipati osmolskae (f). Dotted blue lines in (e, f) outline internal features obscured by overlying mandibles. mvp maxillovomeral process, mPTv pterygoideus ventralismuscle, pt pterygoid

(e) idealised reconstruction of the skull and mandible as they would have appeared in life, showing distinctive reduction of infratemporal fenestra (blue arrow), and rearrangement of pterygoid musculature (orange line) compared to archetypal oviraptorid Citipati osmolskae (f). Dotted blue lines in (e, f) outline internal features obscured by overlying mandibles. mvp maxillovomeral process, mPTv pterygoideus ventralismuscle, pt pterygoid

Denver Citipati Infernogallus Oviraptoridae +1
Infernogallus jamesi (ROM VP 65050). Photograph (a) and line drawing (b) of ROM VP 65050. c Skeletal reconstruction of Infernogallus jamesi based on ROM VP 65050 and other eucaenagnathines (shaded areas are preserved in ROM 65050). (d) Palaeohistological thin section of the femur of ROM VP 65050, showing lines of arrested growth (arrows) and an external fundamental system indicative of advanced age and skeletal maturity. cv cervical vertebrae, dv dorsal vertebrae, efs external fundamental system, fe femur, ga gastralia, hu humerus, il ilium, ma manus, pb pubis, pp plane-polarised light, sc scapulacoracoid, sk skull, tb tibia, xp cross-polarised light. Scale bars as indicated.
Taxa Infernogallus

Infernogallus jamesi (ROM VP 65050). Photograph (a) and line drawing (b) of ROM VP 65050. c Skeletal reconstruction of Infernogallus jamesi based on ROM VP 65050 and other eucaenagnathines (shaded areas are preserved in ROM 65050). (d) Palaeohistological thin section of the femur of ROM VP 65050, showing lines of arrested growth (arrows) and an external fundamental system indicative of advanced age and skeletal maturity. cv cervical vertebrae, dv dorsal vertebrae, efs external fundamental system, fe femur, ga gastralia, hu humerus, il ilium, ma manus, pb pubis, pp plane-polarised light, sc scapulacoracoid, sk skull, tb tibia, xp cross-polarised light. Scale bars as indicated.

humerus scale growth drawing +2