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Becklespinax altispinax holotype BMNH R1828 (originally assigned to Megalosaurus bucklandii). Owen's description follows: Three anterior dorsal vertebræ : p, parapophysis, or lower transverse process: t, accessory tubercle contributing some attachment to the head of the rib : d, diapophyses, or upper transverse process, fractured, which gave attachment to the tubercle of the rib: b, oblique buttress extending from the parapophysis to the diapophysis, and contributing to the support of the neural platform : z, the prozygapophysis, z', the zygapophysis, forming the ends of the neural platform and articulating the neural arches of the vertebræ with each other, ns, the neural spine of the foremost of these vertebras, ns', the neural spine of the second vertebra; it expands at its extremity, overhangs the anterior shorter spine, and developes a strong bony plate from its back part which fixes it to n", the similarly developed and modified spine of the third vertebra. The extraordinary size and strength of the spines of these anterior dorsal vertebræ, indicate the great force with which the head and jaws of the Megalosaurus must have been used. From the Wealden, near Battle. In the Museum of Samuel H. Beckles, Esq., F.G.S.

Caihong juji holotype specimen (PMoL-B00175). Photographs of the slab (a) and counter slab (b) and line drawing (c) of the specimen based on both slabs. Photograph (d) and line drawing (e) of a composite of the rostrum of the skull and mandible exposed on the counter slab and the post-rostrum cranium exposed on the slab. Arrows indicate lacrimal crests. Question mark indicates uncertain identification. Scale bars: 10 cm a–c, 1 cm d and e. aof antorbital fenestra, cav caudal vertebra, cev cervical vertebra, dr dorsal rib, dv dorsal vertebra, ect ectopterygoid, emf external mandibular fenestra, en external naris, f feather, fu furcula, ga gastralia, hy hyoid, il ilium, is ischium, la left angular, lar left articular, lc left coracoid, lcr lacrimal crest, ld left dentary, lf left, frontal, lfe left femur, lh left humerus, lj left jugal, ll left lacrimal, lma left maxilla, lm left manus, ln left nasal, lp left pes, lpa left palatine, lpo left postorbital, lq left quadrate, lqj left quadratojugal, lr left radius, ls left scapula, lsp left splenial, lsa left surangular, lsq left squamosal, lt left tibiotarsus, lu left ulna, ma mandible, mf maxillary fenestra, o orbit, p parietal, pm premaxilla, pt pterygoid, pu pubis, rar right articular, rc right coracoid, rd right dentary, rfe right femur, rh right humerus, rm right manus, rp right pes, rpra right prearticular, rq right quadrate, rr right radius, rs right scapula, rt right tibiotarsus, ru right ulna, scl sclerotic bones, sk skull, sy synsacrum

Skeletal reconstruction of Dineobellator notohesperus gen. et sp. nov., SMP VP-2430, with known elements colored in white. Figured bones are as follows: fused distal caudal vertebra (A); middle caudal vertebra (B); caudal vertebra 1 (C); right femur (D); rib (E); right basipterygoid (F); left lacrimal (reversed) (G); right jugal (H); right humerus (I); right ulna (J); right metacarpal III (K); right manual ungual II (L); right metatarsal II (M); right metatarsal III. (N) Individual scale bars, 2 cm. Skeletal drawing based off work of Scott Hartman.

(A) Skeletal reconstruction in left lateral view (missing and damaged portions of the bones in gray). (B) Left ilium in lateral view. (C) Proximal caudal vertebrae in left lateral view with close-up of the infraprezygapophyses. (D) Chevron in cranial view. (E-F) Right scapula in dorsal (E) and lateral (F) views. (G) Last sacral and the two proximalmost caudals in left lateral view. (H) Right pubis in medial view. (I) Right ischium in lateral view. (J) Right femur in distal view. (K) Left metatarsus and distal tarsals in proximal view. (L) Right femur in cranial view. (M-N) Left metatarsus in lateral (M) and dorsal (N) views. Abbreviations: acr, acromion process; ant, antitrochanter; ch, chevron; cv, caudal vertebra(e); diprf, dorsal infraprezygapophyseal fossa; dt, distal tarsal(s); fct, cranial trochanter of femur; fh, femoral head; gl, glenoid fossa; idf, infradiapophyseal fossa; lc, lateral condyle; mc, medial condyle; mep, medial epicondyle; miprf, middle infraprezygapophyseal fossa; mt II, metatarsal II; mt IV, metatarsal IV; mt V, metatarsal V; ns, neural spine; obp, obturator process; pra, preacetabular process; pup, pubic peduncle; sprf, supraprezygapophyseal fossa; sv, sacral vertebra; tfc, tibiofibular crest; tp, transverse process; viprf, ventral infraprezygapophyseal fossa. Scale bars equal 10 cm in (A); 1 cm in (B-N). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0210867.g004

A photograph of the skeleton of Jianchangosaurus yixianensis gen. et sp. nov. (41HIII-0308A) (A) and line drawing (B). Abbreviations: at, atlas; ax, axis; cav, caudal vertebra; cv, cervical vertebra; co, coracoid; dc, distal carpal; dv, dorsal vertebra; l., left; f, femur; fi, fibula; fur, furcula; hu, humerus; il, ilium; is, ischium; pu, pubis; ra, radius; sc, scapula; ti, tibia; ul, ulna; mc, metacarpal; mt, metatarsal; mxf, maxillary fenestra; pat, proatlas; r., right; sr, sacral rib; sv, sacral vertebra; ung, ungual. All elements of the skeleton are preserved except the distal half of the caudal vertebrae. Dashed lines of metatarsals indicate areas that have been reconstructed. The middle portion of the neck, from the fourth to ninth cervical vertebrae, and the pedal phalanges have been repositioned. The rest of elements of this specimen are in the original position.

Alvarezsauridae gen. et sp. indet., posterior caudal vertebrae. Dzharakuduk, Uzbekistan; Bissekty Formation, Upper Cretaceous (Turonian). a-e, ZIN PH 2441/16, two vertebrae preserved in articulation, in anterior (a), dorsal (b), posterior (c), lateral (d), and ventral (e) views. f-j, ZIN PH 2442/16, vertebra missing ventral part of the centrum, in dorsal (f), lateral (g), ventral (h), anterior (i), and posterior (j).

Cervical vertebra of Calamosaurus foxi

Tetanuran theropod Cruxicheiros newmanorum gen. et sp. nov. axial vertebrae (WARMS 15771) from the Chipping Norton Limestone Formation, Bathonian of the United Kingdom. A. Posterior cervical or anterior dorsal vertebra in posterior view. B. Partial middle−posterior dorsal vertebra in right lat− eral view showing a sagittal cross−section (B1) and in dorsal view (B2). C. Middle−distal caudal vertebra in left lateral (C1) and posterior (C2) views. D. Mid− dle−posterior dorsal neural arch in anterior (D1), right lateral (D2, D3), and posterior (D4) views. Photographs (A, B1, B2, C1, C2, D1, D2, D4) and line drawing (D3). Crossed−hatching indicates matrix and grey tone indicates broken bone.

Figure 1. Holotype NHMUK PV R 37591 pelvis and vertebrae of P. milnerae gen. et sp. nov. in (a) left lateral view and (b) right lateral view. atr, antitrochanter; bf, brevis fossa; bfr, brevis fossa rim; bs, brevis shelf; dv, dorsal vertebra; iss, ischial shaft; nc, neural canal; no, notch; obf, obturator foramen; poap, postacetabular process; prap, preacetabular process; puf, pubic fenestra; pus, pubic shaft; ras, rib attachment scar; ri, rim; sac, supra-acetabular crest; sv, sacral vertebra.

Figure 1: Holotype and skeletal reconstruction of Mosaiceratops azumai, gen. et sp. nov (ZMNH M8856). (a) photograph and line drawing of ZMNH M8856; (b) skeletal reconstruction showing preserved elements in white. Scale bar 10 cm. Abbreviations: a, astragalus; boc, basioccipital; c, calcaneum; cav, caudal vertebra; ch, chevron; cv, cervical vertebra; dr, dorsal rib; dv, dorsal vertebra; f, frontal; fem, femur; fl, fibula; h, humerus; il, ilium; is, ischium; L, left; mt, metatarsal; ph, phalanx/phalanges; po, postorbital; R, right; sk, skull; sq, squamosal; t, tibia; td, tendon; ?, undiagnostic remains.

Holotype of Jakapil kaniukura (MPCA-PV-630), postcranial bones. Speculative silhouette showing preserved elements (a); osteoderm distribution is speculative and partial to show non-osteodermal elements); dorsal vertebra elements in dorsal (b), right lateral (c) and anterior (d,e) views; sacral vertebra in left lateral view (f); mid-caudal vertebra in left lateral view (g); fragment of the mid-shaft of a dorsal rib in posterior view (the enlarged, broken posterior edge is highlighted (h); expanded distal ends of two dorsal ribs (i); left scapula in lateral view (j); right scapula in lateral view (k); right coracoid in lateral view (l); left and right humeri in anterior view (m); probable right ulna in lateral view (n); metacarpals, non-ungual and ungual phalanx in dorsal views (o); left femur elements in anterior view (p); proximal end of the right fibula in lateral view (q); distal end of the left tibia in anterior view (r); ischial elements in side view (s); cervical osteoderms in dorsal view (t), flat scutes in dorsal view (u), spine-like osteoderm in side view (v) and ossicle in dorsal view (w). ac acromial crest, aco asymmetrical cervical osteoderm, alp anterolateral process, ap acromial process, at anterior trochanter, bb basal bone, ebr expanded broken rib edge, di diapophysis, dpc deltopectoral crest, ft fourth trochanter, gl glenoid, mc metacarpals, nc neural canal, ncs neurocentral suture, ph non-ungual phalanx, pp pubic peduncle, poz postzygapophyses, rug marginal rugosities, sb scapular blade, sc scute, tp transverse process, uph ungual phalanx.

PLATE X X X I ~ r. The vertebral column of Anoplosaurus c~rto~ot~s. Fig. l. Left lateral aspect of third to seventh cervical eentrums, showing how the bodies of the vertebrae increase in depth from before backward, and indicating at the upper anterior corner of each an attachment for a cervical rib. 1 a. Visceral aspect of third (?) cervical vertebra, showing flattened and rounded under surface, and expansion towards the anterior end. Fig. 2. Left lateral aspect of fourteenth to eighteenth eentrums of the series, showing the somewhat compressed appearance of upper parts of the bodies of the last five dorsal vertebra. 2 a. Visceral aspect of the last dorsal vertebra, 1~o. 18. 2 b. Posterior (?) articular end of the same centrum, No. 18. 3. The sacrum, showing the neural or superior surface, and giving evi- dence of the great expansion of the spinal cord in the region of the second and third sacral vertebra. The outlets for the escape of the sacral nerves at the sides of the centrum are best seen in the first three vertebrae. 4. Dorsal surface of vertebral end of a sacral rib, showing the massive end for attachment to the sides of the centrums of the second and third vertebrm. Its worn upper surface gave attachment to the neural arch. 5. Left lateral aspect of a sequence of six early caudal vertebrm numbered 25 to 30, showing decreasing depth of the centrum posteriorly, and diminishing size in the surface for the attachment of the sacral rib which remains in union with the 30th vertebra. The chevron facet, e, also diminishes in size. 5 a. Posterior articular surface and facet for the chevron bone of the vertebra ~No. 26.

Representative bones of Pulanesaura eocollum. (a) anterior-to-middle cervical vertebrae (BP/1/6199) in left lateral view; (b) holotypic anterior-most dorsal neural arch (BP/1/6882) in left lateral and anterior views; (c) anterior dorsal neural arch (BP/1/6984) in anterior and right lateral views; (d) anterior mid-dorsal neural arch (BP/1/6183) in anterior and right lateral views; (e) middle dorsal neural arch (BP/1/6770) in posterior view; (f) anterior caudal vertebra (BP/1/6646) in right lateral and posterior views; (g) right humerus (BP/1/6193) in anterior view; (h) left ulna (BP/1/6210) in lateral and proximal views; (i) ?left clavicle (BP/1/6752) in dorsal view; (j) left pedal ungual I (BP/1/6186) in proximal and medial views; (k) left tibia (BP/1/6200) in anterior and lateral views; (l) right ischium (reversed) (BP/1/7366) in lateral view. Abbreviations: aidf, anterior infradiapophyseal fossa; ain, anterior incline of the neural spine; ep, epipophysis; hyp, hyposphene; mr, medial ridge; pp, parapophysis; prdl, prezygodiapophyseal lamina; prz, prezygapophyses; rf, radial fossa; spol, spinopostzygapophyseal lamina; vc, ventral convexity. Scale bars equal 5 cm in a-f and i, j; 10 cm in g, h, k, l. Silhouette drawn by BWM Photographs by BWM.

Skeletal reconstruction and exemplar skeletal remains of Lingwulong shenqi. Silhouette showing preserved elements (a); middle cervical vertebra in left lateral (b) and anterior (c) views; anterior dorsal vertebra in left lateral (d) and anterior (e) views; posterior dorsal vertebra in lateral view (f); sacrum and ilium in left lateral view (g); anterior caudal vertebra in left lateral (h) and anterior (i) views; right scapulocoracoid in lateral view (j); right humerus in anterior view (k); left pubis in lateral view (l); right ischium in lateral (m) views; right femur in posterior view (n); and right tibia in lateral view (o). Abbreviations: ap, ambiens process; ar, acromial ridge; ip, iliac peduncle; naf, notch anterior to glenoid; np, neural spine; podl, postzygodiapophyseal lamina; ppr, prezygapophyseal process ridge; prp, prezygapophysis; pvf, posteroventral fossa; slf, shallow lateral fossa; spol, spinopostzygapophyseal lamina; sprl, spinoprezygapophyseal lamina; wls, wing-like structure. Scale bars = 100 cm for a and 5 cm for b–o

Skeletal elements of Bajadasaurus pronuspinax gen. et sp. nov (MMCh-PV 75). (A–C) Skull roof and braincase in posterior (A), left lateral (B) and right lateral (C) views. (D,E) Left lower jaw in dorsal (D) and medial (E) views. F, Dentaries in anterior view. (G) Pterygoids in ventral view. (H) Left maxilla in medial view. (I) Left lacrimal in lateral view. (J) Left quadratojugal in lateral view. (K,L) Right quadrate in medial (K) and posterior (L) views. (M) Proatlases in dorsal view. (N) Atlantal neurapophyses in anterior view. (O,P), Axis in left lateral (O) and anterior (P) views. (Q,R) Fifth cervical vertebra in left lateral (Q) and anterior (R) views. an, angular; ar, articular; bo, basioccipital; bt, basal tubera; btp, basipterygoid process; ch, ‘chin’ of dentary; cn, cranial nerve; d, dentary; di, diapophysis; f, frontal; fm, foramen magnum; fo, fenestra ovalis; ls, laterosphenoid; met, metotic foramen; mp, medial process; nc, neural canal; ns, neural spine; os, orbitosphenoid; p, parietal; pfo, pneumatic fossa; po, postorbital; pocdf, postzygapophyseal centrodiapophyseal fossa; podl, postzygodiapophyseal lamina; popr, paraoccipital process; poz, postzygapophysis; pra, prearticular; pre, prezygapophysis; prsl, prespinal lamina; ptf, postemporal fenestra; qf, quadrate fossa; rm, replacement maxillary tooth; sa, surangular; sp, splenial; sq, squamosal; stf, supratemporal fenestra; vk, ventral keel; vp, ventral process.

Cervical vertebrae of rebbachisaurid sauropod Katepensaurus goicoecheai Ibiricu, Casal, Martínez, Lamanna, Luna, and Salgado, 2013a from the Cenomanian–Turonian Bajo Barreal Formation of Chubut Province, Argentina. A. UNPSJB-PV 1007/1, anterior cervical vertebra in anterior (A1) and right ventrolateral (A2) views. B. UNPSJB-PV 1007/2, anterior cervical vertebra in right lateral view. C. UNPSJB-PV 1007/3, middle cervical vertebra in right lateral view. Lateral fossae of the centrum (hypothesized as pneumatic in origin) indicated by arrows.